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Last Updated: Tuesday, 08 September 2026 20:53
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Published: Thursday, 16 April 2026 03:28
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Chemical Reactions:
Khan Academy => https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-chemistry-beta/x2eef969c74e0d802:chemical-reactions
Chemical reactions cause chemical changes, while non-chemical reactions cause only physical change. Ex: ice melting to water is physical change, while propane burning is a chemical change as it results in formation of new compounds. Chemical change results in making and breaking of bonds.
Consider the reaction between NaCl (sodium Chloride) and AgNO3 (silver Nitrate). They are both solids, but they can be dissolved in a solution (usually water), and then they are denoted by "aq" to indicate they are in aqueous solution. This changes how the 2 compounds react.
Salt (NaCl) dissolves in water. We think of crystalline salt as solid NaCl, and these indeed exist as molecule of NaCl. But when dissolved n water, Na and Cl actually dissociate to form Na+ ions and Cl- ions, surrounded by water molecules, with Na+ surrounded by partially -ve Oxygen atoms of water, while Cl- surrounded by partially +ve Hydrogen atoms of water. Similarly Silver Nitrate dissociates into Ag+ and NO3-.
We write eq as follows in Molecular Eq as follows: NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) => NaNO3 (aq) + AgCl (s) [NOTE: AgCl solid is formed from the above reaction, as it precipitates out of the solution, it doesn't have high solubility]
To better represent that the aq solution actually consists of dissociated ions, we can write eq in complete Ionic Eq as follows: Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Ag+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) => Na+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) + AgCl (s)
We can write above eqn in Net ionic eqn as follows: Cl- (aq) + Ag+ (aq) => AgCl (s) [By cancelling out spectator ions which are the ions which are just watching the reaction, In this case Na+ (aq) and NO3- (aq) are spectator ions]
+ve ions are called cations, as they get attracted to cathode (-ve terminal), while -ve ions are called anions, as they get attracted to anode (+ve terminal),
Balancing number of atoms of both sides of eqn is needed, as no atoms can disappear or appear out of no where.
ex: CH4 (g) + H2O (g) => CO (g) + 3H2 (g) [Here we have to have 3 molecules of H2 gas on RHS to have same number of H atoms on LHS (total of 6 H atoms on both sides of the eqn]
Stoichiometry: Here we solve chemical eqn to find how many grams of compounds react to produce how many grams of final product. This can be done by first balancing the eqn, then finding out molar mass of molecules on the 2 sides, and then covert it to grams. This is pure Maths addition/subtraction.
Oxidation Reduction (redox reaction): An oxidation–reduction is a reaction that involves the transfer of electrons between chemical species (the atoms, ions, or molecules involved in the reaction). During a redox reaction, some species undergo oxidation, or the loss of electrons, while others undergo reduction, or the gain of electrons.
Oxidation is process of something combining with oxygen. Since oxygen has 6 electrons in outermost shell (n=2), it needs 2 more electrons to complete it's shell, which requires those electrons coming from the other compound, so oxidation is defined as loss of electrons (more +ve charge, gain of charge). Oxygen itself gains electrons, and that is defined as reduction (more -ve charge, loss of charge).
For example, consider the reaction between iron and oxygen to form rust:
4Fe(s) + 3O2 (g) => 2Fe2O3 (s) (rusting of iron)
Fe has 2 electrons in outermost 4s shell, so it loses 2 electrons to for Fe2+. But more stable form is Fe3+ where it loses an extra electron from 3d shell to form half filled 3d shell (from 3d6 to 3d5 ). So Fe2O3 is a chain like structure with 2 oxygen on the end attaching to 2 Fe atoms, while oxygen in the center forms 1 bond with each Fe atom, forming O2- for all 3 O atoms, and Fe loses 3 electrons for each Fe atom to form Fe3+. Fe is oxidized, while O is reduced.
An atom’s oxidation number (or oxidation state) is the imaginary charge that the atom would have if all of the bonds to the atom were completely ionic. Oxidation involves an increase in oxidation number, while reduction involves a decrease in oxidation number.
The sum of the oxidation numbers for all atoms in a neutral compound is equal to zero, while the sum for all atoms in a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge on the ion. Look in KA for examples on Oxidation number.
Half reaction method: To balance a redox equation using the half-reaction method, the equation is first divided into two half-reactions, one representing oxidation and one representing reduction, and then both are balanced independently and then combined in the end.
Dissociation of Water molecules:
When we talk of water, we treat it as having all it's molecules present as H2O. In reality, some of it's molecules dissociate into H+ and OH- . The H+ combines with a lone H2O molecule to form hydronium ion, H3O+. About 6 in every 100 million (6 in 108) water molecules undergo the following reaction:
H2O (l) + H2O (l) <=> H3O+ (aq) + OH- (aq) Here l refers to liquid while aq refers to aqueous soln. The extra proton forms a covalent bond with 1 of the lone pair electron in oxygen. The reaction is bidir.
Dissociation of water => https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Introduction_to_General_Chemistry_(Malik)/06%3A_Acids_and_bases/6.05%3A_Dissociation_of_water
This process is called the autoionization of water and occurs in every sample of water, whether it is pure or part of a solution. This ionization of water gives rise to conductivity of water, albeit very low.
Conductivity of water:
Let's take water as a solution in our standard cell to measure it's conductivity: electrodes of area A=1 cm2A=1 cm^2, gap d=1 cmd=1 cm, applied voltage V=1 VV=1 V, measured current I=5.5×10−8 AI=5.5×10^-8A (the 55 nA). It's extremely low current. Using R=V/I, we get R=1.8*10^7 ohms. So, resistivity ρ = R*L/A = 1.8*10^7 Ω-cm. So, resistivity is very high (almost insulator) as metals have conductivity in range of 10^-7 Ω-cm.
The ionic conductivity of water arises from conductivity of H+ and OH-. We saw in "passive elements" section, that for any conducting medium, σ = -q*n*µ = n*q2*t/m, where n=number of electrons crossing per unit area, q=charge and µ= electron mobility. If there are other carriers besides electrons, then they all have to be added, i.e in semiC, we have holes (p), so σ = - (q*n*µn + q*n*µp) . For solutions, we have similar mobility concept for ions, as the free ions in a solution are what become carriers (as the ions are the ones that move in response to electric field).
Electrolyte (ion) conductivity in a solution = ∑ (zi * F) * ui * Ci = ∑ λi * Ci , where λi= (zi * F) * ui = molar conductivity of ions per mole (charge_per_ion*Faraday*mobility_of_ion) and Ci= ion concentration (mole/cm^3).
Faraday is defined as total charge (in Coulombs) on 1 mole of electrons = 1.6*10^-19 C * 6.02*10^23 e/mole = 96,500 C. So, (zi*F)= total charge on 1 mole of ions, which is equiv to "q" in our above classic resistivity eqn. This multiplied with mobility and conc, gives total conductivity σ = ∑ q*n*µ, where q=zi*F, n=Ci , µ=ui.
Molar conductivity per mole λi= (zi*F)*ui = charge*mobility = C*cm^2/(V-s)/mole = S.cm^2/mol (units obtained by dividing σ (S/cm) by conc (mol/cm^3)).
Acid and Base:
Definition of Acid/Base:
Bronsted and Lowry defined acid and base based on this. They defined acid as anything that is a proton/H+ donor. Coversely base was defined as anything that is a proton/H+ acceptor.
ex: HCl (aq) + H2O (l) → Cl- + H3O+ Here HCl donated a proton (H+), so it's a acid, and H2O accepted a proton, so it's a base. The product formed from the acid after donating a proton is called "conjugate base" of the acid. Similarly the product formed from the base after accepting a proton is called "conjugate acid" of the base.
The above eqn are generally rep by arrow in both direction, indicating the forward and backward reaction are both taking place at the same time, and it's a reaction that is in equilibrium.
Acid: donates H+. Product after donating becomes a conjugate base. It's called conjugate base, as it can accept H+.
Base: accepts H+ . Product after accepting becomes a conjugate acid. It's called conjugate acid, as it can donate H+.
Titration: It's a process for determining the conc of a acid/base in a solution. We find the unknown molar conc of a solution (i.e acid) by mixing it with known molar conc of another slution (i.e base) and note where does the resulting solution go neutral.
